Lightning Strikes Again and Again Renaissance Man Song Reaction

Western cultural motion inspired by aboriginal Hellenic republic and Rome

Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural motility in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and compages that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical artifact. Neoclassicism was built-in in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the fourth dimension of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread all over Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Bout and returned from Italy to their dwelling countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.^[i] ^[ii] The main Neoclassical motion coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and upward to the 21st century.

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the and then-ascendant Rococo style. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and disproportion; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen equally virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism selects some models amidst the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. The Neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an thought of the generation of Phidias, simply the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to exist Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek fine art and the works of Late Antiquity. The "Rococo" art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood'southward The Ruins of Palmyra. Even Hellenic republic was all-but-unvisited, a rough backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, and so Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" the monuments of Hellenic republic, not ever consciously.

The Empire style, a 2nd phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural eye in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Peculiarly in compages, merely besides in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long subsequently the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United states and Russian federation.

History [edit]

Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,^[three] which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo manner.^[iv] While the movement is often described every bit the opposed analogue of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to exist sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.^[five] The revival can exist traced to the institution of formal archaeology.^[6] ^[7]

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this move in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Faux of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the start to distinguish sharply between Aboriginal Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek fine art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then simulated or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",^[9] and praised the idealism of Greek fine art, in which he said we observe "not just nature at its most beautiful just as well something across nature, namely certain ideal forms of its dazzler, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us, come from images created by the listen alone". The theory was very far from new in Western fine art, only his accent on close copying of Greek models was: "The but way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".^[x]

With the appearance of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.^[11] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model.

In English language, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar motion in English literature, which began considerably before, is called Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline past the fourth dimension Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was like. In music, the period saw the rising of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. Still, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing decoration, increasing the role of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.^[12]

The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the manner was described by such terms every bit "the true mode", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as beingness revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the mode could too be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France equally a return to the more ascetic and noble Bizarre of the age of Louis 14, for which a considerable nostalgia had adult every bit France's dominant military and political position started a serious reject.^[xiii] Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon fifty-fifty borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from aboriginal painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing establish in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, similar most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the decline of painting in his period.^[14]

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael'south generation, frescos in Nero'southward Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, simply often very desperately informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.^[xv]

Painting and printmaking [edit]

It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early on Neoclassical painting for gimmicky audiences; it now strikes fifty-fifty those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "nigh entirely uninteresting to united states"—some of Kenneth Clark's comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani,^[17] past the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and peradventure of after times".^[18] The drawings, afterwards turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing (idea to exist the purest classical medium^[19]) and figures by and large in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and in one case "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are at present "neglected",^[20] while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described equally having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by Fritz Novotny.^[21] Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, every bit Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a by and large Neoclassical fashion, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the big mythological works that he planned, leaving by and large drawings and colour studies which ofttimes succeed in approaching Winckelmann'south prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".^[22] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken dorsum by those making the One thousand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main bailiwick matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more than stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting temper of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fright and frustration".^[23] The Swiss-built-in Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental fashion was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission past the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and force. The central perspective is perpendicular to the movie plane, fabricated more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and subsequently the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic menstruation, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to go out France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.^[24]

David's many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself every bit a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the chief current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except past the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over sixty years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, but his style, once formed, inverse little.^[25]

Self-Portrait with a Harp; by Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux; 1791; oil on sail; 193 x 128.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
xi February 1866 - Modern Romania; by Gheorghe Tattarescu; 1866; oil on cardboard; 31.4 x 24 cm; private collection

Sculpture [edit]

If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them, although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "classical period" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.^[31] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose piece of work was mainly portraits, very frequently every bit busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or beingness unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, as well equally busts of Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin and other founders of the new republic.^[32] ^[33]

Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces.^[34] All these, and Flaxman, were even so active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was dull to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the ascendant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.^[35] John Flaxman was too, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, i of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die immature, were the leading German artists,^[36] with Franz Anton von Zauner in Republic of austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of baldheaded figures pulling extreme facial expressions.^[37] Like Piranesi's Carceri, these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the Us did non accept a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and send figureheads,^[38] the European Neoclassical manner was adopted at that place, and information technology was to agree sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart.

Architecture and the decorative arts [edit]

Hôtel Gouthière on Rue Pierre-Bullet no. half dozen (Paris), unknown engagement, unknown architect

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modernistic, conservative and progressive all at the same time.^[42]

Neoclassicism get-go gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French fine art students trained in Rome and influenced past the writings of Winckelmann, and information technology was quickly adopted past progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden, Poland and Russia. At start, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine II's lover, Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori: simply the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In French republic, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI manner", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained pop in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced equally a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.^{[ according to whom? ]}

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture fabricated in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture fabricated in Republic of austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "blackness basaltes" vases. The manner was international; Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-built-in Catherine Ii the Swell, in Russian Petrograd.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, just but achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,^[43] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their frequently flatulent appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-similar relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian cherry" or pale tints, or stone colors. The way in France was initially a Parisian mode, the Goût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis Xvi" fashion to court. However, in that location was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and article of furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to take taken an almost perverse pleasance in transferring motifs from i medium to some other".^[44]

From near 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the aforementioned fourth dimension the Empire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in compages and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the dominion of Napoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon'southward leadership and the French country. The manner corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the Us,^[43] the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. Co-ordinate to the art historian Hugh Honour "and then far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back in one case more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and forcefulness of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".^[45] An earlier phase of the style was called the Adam fashion in Great U.k. and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and across—a abiding antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or fifty-fifty reactionary, in influential critical circles.^{[ who? ]} The centres of several European cities, notably Leningrad and Munich, came to await much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (ofttimes linked with the Romantic cultural motility), a manner originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and society, Gothic revival compages placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often fabricated to have a rustic, "romantic" advent.

France [edit]

Louis XVI manner (1760-1789) [edit]

It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis Xvi style represents them as realistic and natural equally possible, ie laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the aforementioned, and then on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light gray, bright blueish, pink, yellowish, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.^[47] The return to antiquity is synonymous with in a higher place all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, salve for the occasional one-half circumvolve or oval. Interior decor likewise honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, merely it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically effectually a cardinal axis. Fifty-fifty and so, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.^[48]

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by artifact, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the mode: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and king of beasts heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are too very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).^[49]

Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and aureate bronze; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.90 thou; Louvre
Whorl-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; past Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pino frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre^[58]
Writing table of Marie-Antoinette; past Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre^[59]
Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pinkish silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
Pair of vases; 1789; difficult-paste porcelain, golden bronze, marble; tiptop (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis 16'southward Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud; 1788; carved and gold walnut, gilt brocaded silk (non original); overall: 100 × 74.ix × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Empire style (1804-1815) [edit]

It representative for the new French society that has exited from the revolution which fix the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine is invented during this period (which revolutionises the entire sewing system, transmission until then). I of the dominant colours is red, decorated with gilt bronze. Vivid colours are likewise used, including white, cream, violet, brown, bleu, dark red, with footling ornaments of gilt statuary. Interior compages includes wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of uncomplicated rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central effigy. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or chocolate-brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fiber fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for defunction, for covering certain article of furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is also used for upholstery).^[60]

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis 14 way. More often than not, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they don't, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and Due north (for Napoleon), which were normally inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, collywobbles, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There'south a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and apartment acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, called-for torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres). Despite their antiquarian derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis 16 are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the start of the menstruum: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by blank anxiety and with women Egyptian headdresses.^[61]

Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate below shelf; peak: 92.iv cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Clock with Mars and Venus; circa 1810; golden bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre
Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Uk [edit]

The Adam fashion was created by 2 brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a book of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior ornament made subsequently Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into large panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and whatever other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (particularly the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such equally urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all take the aforementioned source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big primal mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The article of furniture in this style has a like construction to Louis 16 article of furniture.^[66]

Besides the Adam way, when it comes to decorative arts, England is as well known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material chosen jasperware, a hard and fine-grained type of stoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in well-nigh cases the figures being white and the background blue.

The Hall (Osterley Park), 1767, by Robert Adam^[69]
Urn on pedestal; circa 1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; summit: 49.viii cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Side table with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania; by Robert Adam; c.1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.6 × 141.three × 57.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Fine art

The Usa [edit]

On the American continent, architecture and interior ornament have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The applied spirit and the fabric situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American piece of furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne manner, and an Chippendale ane. A way of its ain, the Federal fashion, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic gustatory modality. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, compages, interiors, and furniture take been created. The mode, although information technology has numerous characteristics which differ from state to country, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and piece of furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and statuary or brass inlays (sometimes golden).^[73]

Candlestand; 1790-1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 x 49.21 10 48.nine cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Writing desk-bound; 1790-1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 ten 90.17 x 51.44 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Armchair; mayhap by Ephraim Haines; 1805-1815; mahogany and cane; peak: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815-1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Gardens [edit]

In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the piece of work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.^[76]

Neoclassicism and fashion [edit]

In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well earlier the French Revolution, but it was not until afterward it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn past fashionable ladies posing equally some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular in that location was a rash of such portraits of the immature model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were but worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits past Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public too. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il north'est pas possible de due south'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not exist more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.^[77] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn fifty-fifty indoors before. Sparse Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the pilus instead.

Very light and loose dresses, commonly white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or necktie round the torso, often in a different colour. The shape is now oftentimes known every bit the Empire silhouette although it predates the Get-go French Empire of Napoleon, only his outset Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red just with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid effectually the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.^[78] By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.

Neoclassical manner for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for pilus, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, merely exterior the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Fifty-fifty when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the regime during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings nether a coat that stopped above the articulatio genus. A loftier proportion of well-to-practice immature men spent much of the key period in military service considering of the French Revolutionary Wars, and war machine uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was oft worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.

The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic past many artists and critics. Diverse stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Woods Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-similar Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main effigy could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, simply one shows a single breeched leg prominently. Nonetheless the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works similar West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley'due south The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hair styles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of almost patently modern male person styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, fifth Knuckles of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt information technology by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or grouping of styles) was named by the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair curt and layered but somewhat piled upward on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The way was supposed to have been introduced by the role player François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire'due south Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,^[79] and the fashion was also worn by women, the Periodical de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their pilus or wig à la Titus.^[80]

Later Neoclassicism [edit]

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was ane expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community equally being backward thinking and sometime fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History'southward Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' awe-inspiring city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War Ii was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.

Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture fifty-fifty in manufactory buildings. Where a colonnade would accept been decried as "reactionary", a building's pilaster-like fluted panels nether a repeating frieze looked "progressive". Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following Earth War I, and the Art Deco mode that came to the fore following the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts Décoratifs, oft drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: astringent, blocky commodes by É.-J. Ruhlmann or Süe & Mare; crisp, extremely depression-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cutting on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan; the Streamline Moderne styling of U.S. post offices and county court buildings built as belatedly as 1950; and the Roosevelt dime.

There was an unabridged 20th-century movement in the Arts which was also called Neoclassicism. Information technology encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World State of war II. (For information on the musical aspects, run into 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, run across Great Books.)

This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English language literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives.

In music [edit]

Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this instance it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were existence revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Bizarre menstruum in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The motion was a reaction in the first role of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a want for cleanness and simplicity of style, which immune for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow abroad the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cutting sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and concrete teaching.

The 17th-18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the athwart qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Respighi'south Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the mode for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the by has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics accept gone through periods where musicians used modernistic techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled past descriptive or emotive associations, the utilize of lite musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived betwixt the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this fashion; he finer began the musical revolution with his Bach-similar Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic fashion of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Purple style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while likewise introducing technical innovations.

Compages in Russia and the Soviet Marriage [edit]

In 1905–1914 Russian compages passed through a brief merely influential period of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and chop-chop expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, even so recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative summit earlier World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economic system recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers connected working in primarily modernist environs; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.^[81]

With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted equally 1 of the choices in Stalinist architecture, although non the just choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist compages of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Fine art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the way were produced by Zholtovsky schoolhouse that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since it did non rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were hands replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Improvement of construction technology subsequently World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share petty with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

Architecture in the 21st century [edit]

Subsequently a lull during the menses of modern architectural dominance (roughly mail-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

As of the first decade of the 21st century, gimmicky Neoclassical architecture is commonly classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.^[82] Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona amongst them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style compages that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Compages (or vernacular) is more often than not used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice equally high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.^[83]

In the Us, various contemporary public buildings are congenital in Neoclassical way, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Heart in Nashville being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing Higher and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.

Meet besides [edit]

1795–1820 in Western mode
American Empire (fashion)
Antiquization
Nazi architecture
Neoclassicism in French republic
Neo-Grec, the late Greek-Revival style
Skopje 2014

Notes [edit]

^ Stevenson, Angus (2010-08-nineteen). Oxford Lexicon of English. ISBN9780199571123.
^ Kohle, Hubertus (August seven, 2006). "The road from Rome to Paris. The birth of a modern Neoclassicism". Jacques Louis David. New perspectives.
^ Irwin, David G. (1997). Neoclassicism A&I (Art and Ideas) . Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0-7148-3369-ix.
^ Honour, 17-25; Novotny, 21
^ A recurring theme in Clark: 19-23, 58-62, 69, 97-98 (on Ingres); Honour, 187-190; Novotny, 86-87
^ Lingo, Estelle Cecile (2007). François Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal. Yale University Press; First Edition. pp. 161. ISBN978-0-300-12483-5.
^ Talbott, Page (1995). Classical Savannah: fine & decorative arts, 1800-1840. University of Georgia Press. p. 6. ISBN978-0-8203-1793-9.
^ Cunningham, Reich, Lawrence S., John J. (2009). Culture and values: a survey of the humanities. Wadsworth Publishing; seven edition. p. 104. ISBN978-0-495-56877-3.
^ Accolade, 57-62, 61 quoted
^ Both quotes from the first pages of "Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"
^ Dyson, Stephen L. (2006). In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts: A History of Classical Archeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Yale Academy Press. pp. xii. ISBN978-0-300-11097-v.
^ Honour, 21
^ Honour, eleven, 23-25
^ Honour, 44-46; Novotny, 21
^ Honour, 43-62
^ ^a ^b Fortenberry 2017, p. 276.
^ Clark, 20 (quoted); Honour, xiv; prototype of the painting (in fairness, other works past Mengs are more successful)
^ Honor, 31-32 (31 quoted)
^ Honor, 113-114
^ Honour, 14
^ Novotny, 62
^ Novotny, 51-54
^ Clark, 45-58 (47-48 quoted); Honour, fifty-57
^ Honour, 34-37; Clark, 21-26; Novotny, xix-22
^ Novotny, 39-47; Clark, 97-145; Accolade, 187-190
^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 275.
^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 413. ISBN978-0-7148-7877-5.
^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 211. ISBN978-0-7148-7877-5.
^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Corking Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 419. ISBN978-0-7148-7877-5.
^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 278.
^ Novotny, 378
^ Novotny, 378–379
^ Chinard, Gilbert, ed., Houdon in America Arno PressNy, 1979, a reprint of a book published by Johns Hopkins Academy, 1930
^ Novotny, 379-384
^ Novotny, 384-385
^ Novotny, 388-389
^ Novotny, 390-392
^ Gerdts, William H., American Neo-Archetype Sculpture: The Marble Resurrection, Viking Press, New York, 1973 p. 11
^ Art ● Architecture ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Design. 2011. p. 313. ISBN978-1-4454-5585-three.
^ Laneyrie-Dagen, Nadeije (2021). Historie de l'art pour tous (in French). Hazan. p. 264. ISBN978-2-7541-1230-7.
^ Laneyrie-Dagen, Nadeije (2021). Historie de 50'art pour tous (in French). Hazan. p. 265. ISBN978-two-7541-1230-7.
^ Palmer, Alisson Lee. Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and architecture. p. 1.
^ ^a ^b Gontar
^ Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted
^ Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted
^ Jones 2014, p. 273.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 200, 201 & 202.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Article of furniture • From Louis 13 to Fine art Deco. Little, Brown and Visitor. p. 71.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco. Little, Brownish and Visitor. p. 72.
^ de Martin 1925, p. xi.
^ Jones 2014, p. 276.
^ de Martin 1925, p. thirteen.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 65. ISBN978-one-84484-899-7.
^ Larbodière, Jean-Marc (2015). Fifty'Compages de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui (in French). Massin. p. 105. ISBN978-two-7072-0915-3.
^ de Martin 1925, p. 17.
^ "Corner Cabinet - The Art Establish of Chicago".
^ de Martin 1925, p. 61.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 61. ISBN978-i-84484-899-7.
^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 61. ISBN978-1-84484-899-7.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 217, 219, 220 & 221.
^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis Xiii to Art Deco. Piffling, Brown and Company. p. 103 & 105.
^ Jones 2014, p. 275.
^ ^a ^b Hopkins 2014, p. 111.
^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Ability • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Manner • 1800-1815. p. 209. ISBN978-0-8109-9345-vii.
^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Fine art of the Empire Manner • 1800-1815. p. 32. ISBN978-0-8109-9345-vii.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanaian). Cerces. pp. 253, 255 & 256.
^ ^a ^b Hopkins 2014, p. 103.
^ Bailey 2012, pp. 226. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFBailey2012 (assistance)
^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 274.
^ Farthing, Stephen (2020). ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană (in Romanaian). rao. p. 260. ISBN978-606-006-392-6.
^ Hopkins 2014, p. 104.
^ "Covered Urn - Cleveland Museum of Art". xxx October 2018. Retrieved half dozen May 2022.
^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanaian). Cerces. pp. 269, 270, & 271.
^ ^a ^b Hodge 2019, p. 112.
^ Hodge 2019, p. 31.
^ Turner, Turner (2013). British gardens: history, philosophy and pattern, Chapter six Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730-1800. London: Routledge. p. 456. ISBN978-0415518789.
^ Chase, 244
^ Hunt, 244-245
^ Hunt, 243
^ Rifelj, 35
^ "The Origins of Modernism in Russian Compages". Content.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2012-02-12 .
^ "Neo-classicist Compages. Traditionalism. Historicism".
^ Driehaus Prize for New Classical Architecture at Notre Dame SoA – Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Laurels represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environs.; retained March 7, 2014

References [edit]

Clark, Kenneth, The Romantic Rebellion: Romantic versus Archetype Art, 1976, Omega. ISBN 0-86007-718-7.
de Martin, Henry (1925). Le Style Louis XVI (in French). Flammarion.
Fortenberry, Diane (2017). The Art Museum (Revised ed.). London: Phaidon Press. ISBN978-0-7148-7502-6. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23 .
Gontar, Cybele (2000–). "Neoclassicism". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hodge, Susie (2019). The Brusk Story of Architecture. Laurence King Publishing. ISBN978-1-7862-7370-3.
Hopkins, Owen (2014). Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King. ISBN978-178067-163-five.
Honour, Hugh (1968). Neo-classicism. Style and Civilisation. Penguin. . Reprinted 1977.
Hunt, Lynn (1998). "Liberty of Dress in Revolutionary French republic". In Melzer, Sara Due east.; Norberg, Kathryn (eds.). From the Purple to the Republican Body: Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century French republic. Academy of California Press. ISBN9780520208070.
Jones, Denna, ed. (2014). Architecture The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-29148-1.
Novotny, Fritz. Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (2nd (reprinted 1980) ed.).
Rifelj, Ballad De Dobay (2010). Coiffures: Pilus in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture. University of Delaware Press. ISBN9780874130997.

External links [edit]

Neoclassicism in the "History of Art"
"Neoclassicism Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-07-17 .
Neo-classical drawings in the Flemish Art Collection
19th Century Sculpture Derived From Greek Hellenistic Influence: Jacob Ungerer
The Neoclassicising of Pompeii

georgeaskinkin.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassicism